Water Sources Assessment for Edo State, Nigeria

Water Sources Assessment for Edo State, Nigeria AN ASSESSMENT OF WATER SOURCES FOR DOMESTIC USES IN EDO STATE, NIGERIA BY  *OKADIGWE L.O.  And  **DR. EFE, S.I. Abstract The study was carried out to assess the water sources for domestic uses in Edo State, by carrying out a survey of households in Ugo, Ebele, Igueben and Urhonigbe. Data were collected using various methods which included observations, oral interviews and questionnaires. On the whole, one hundred and sixty (160) questionnaires were administered on heads of householder. Information were gathered on various sources of water, those provided by the government, distances they go, the cost they buy water, the people who are involved in water collection and what the government should do to help in alleviating their problems. The findings have shown that generally, one major source is rain water stored in wells. From the study almost all the respondents said they fetch water from their domestic uses from dug out wells which their roofs help during the rains for them to trapped and store in underground hand-dug wells. The nearest stream is at Umutu, which is about 20 kilometer away in Delta Sta te. There were only four families with water boreholes for commercial purposes. These water vendors sell water at N5 per ten litres. This is out of the reach of many people in this community to satisfy their water demands. The water board was observed to be non-functional. Reasons advanced by the respondents were poor power supply, inadequate operators, breakdown of equipment and poor maintenance. In conclusion, in Urhonigbe in Edo State of Nigeria, the sources of water for domestic uses are inadequate. There is every likelihood that even the existing water from the dugout wells will be contaminated and not portable. It is therefore recommended that the Edo State government through the state water Board should assist in water supply development in Ugo, Ebele, Igueben, Urhonigbe town to ease the sufferings of the ruralites especially the women and children whose daily chores is providing water for domestic uses. They should equally make the water portable in order to make for good he alth all these are what this study has looked into. Introduction Water use varies considerably around the world depending on the availability of water and the degree of industrialization. However, water use can be classified into four broad categories: Domestic use Agricultural use Industrial use and In-stream use Water is important for domestic, agricultural and industrial uses. The study of water and the means by which it may be obtained and controlled for use is of utmost importance to the welfare of mankind, Lapades (1974). About 70% of the earth is covered by water, which is the next most abundant resource after, air, water is the only natural resource founding three states of matter, (gas, liquid and solid) (Ifabiyi, 2000). Apart from air, water is the most important resources to man. He can survive longer without food than without water. Man requires water for cooking drinking, washing, general sanitation (Ayoade and Oyebande, 1983), based on this Charley and Hagget (1969) has stressed that the availability of water has been important in sitting of human settlements and in the development of towns and cities. The use of water from drinking and household needs ranges from washing, cooking, bathing and for flushing of toilets and for general hygiene (Jennings, 1980). It is universally accepted that an adequate supply of water for drinking, personal hygiene and other domestic purposes is essential to public health and well-being. According to a United Nations publication, on water security 2004, they posited that 1.2 billion people live on less than one U.S. dollar a day and over 2.3 billion live on the equivalent of two U.S dollar or less. These people, who are in millions are of the world’s poor, use less water directly or indirectly but depend upon its resources for their livelihoods for more than the rest of us, out of the 500 million people living in sub-Saharan African the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations International Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (1990), revealed that about 256 million lacked safe water for use. This situation is worse in some drought affected areas where renewable fresh water has dropped per person by more than 65% over the past 40 years (Ifabiyi, 2000). It is a well known fact that large numbers of people in Nigeria, most of them living in rural areas, do not have access to safe and reliable source of water. The average daily requirement of an adult for alimentation only is 2.5 liters (Isaac, 1965). Under the tropical conditions, the amount may be double. In addition much greater quantities are required for domestic activities. Total domestic water needs in home with piped water and inside sanitation is at least 115 liters per head per day. Study Area The total population figure of Edo State by 2006 as given by national Population Commission is 3,117,852 showing that the need for water will be high. In the rural communities in Edo State, there are various sources through which water are got for domestic uses. This main objective for this study is an assessment of sources of water for domestic uses in Edo State. This study focuses on the assessment of water sources for domestic uses in some towns in Edo State. Methodology Data for this study were collected through primary sources, which consisted of personal observation, oral interview and questionnaire administration. On the whole one hundred and sixty questionnaires were administered on the respondents in Ugo, Ebele, Iguben and Urhonigbe which were selected rural villages in Edo State based on the severity of water problems. Random sampling techniques were applied. A total of one hundred and sixty questionnaires were administered on the basis of forty to each rural community. The data gathered were presented in tables expressed percentages. The biological characteristics of the quality of water from these rural communities were analyzed with the most probable scientific methods. Various Sources of Domestic Water Rural areas in Edo state, Nigeria have several sources of water which are used for domestic purposes. The sources vary from natural sources like from rivers, streams, rain water, dugout wells, boreholes and in few cases pipe born waters. These rural communities rely on various sources for their households needs as water is for daily need and throughout the year. The study revealed that the main source of water for domestic use is from dug well in which water from rainfall gathered from the roof. Surface Water These are waters which are found in streams, rivers, lakes, springs, dams and shallow wells. Surface water is the commonest water in the rural villages in the developing countries. Women and children get up early in the morning to go to fetch water for domestic uses in these villages. One major problem is that most of these surface waters are polluted all along the path ways through which the flow. People have their baths wash their clothes, cooking utensils and even some abattoirs are close to them which help in polluting and making the water unsafe for drinking and utilization for other domestic purposes. Ground Water Resources Groundwater is an important part of the hydrologic cycle, but it lies beneath the surface, beyond the soil-moisture root zones. It is tied to surface supplies through pores in soil and rock. Ground water is the largest potential of fresh water source in the hydrologic cycle-larger than all surface lakes and streams combined. About 50% of the U.S Population derives a portion of its fresh water from ground water sources. Between 1950 and 1995, annual ground water withdrawal increased to 150%. In some states such as Nebraska ground water supplies 85% of water need and as high as 100% in rural areas, Robert (2002). Despite this volume and its obvious importance groundwater is widely abused by pollution and over consumption in quantities beyond natural replenishment rates. In Canada, about 6 million people (two-third of them live in rural areas) rely on ground water for domestic needs. In many ways ground water is better than surface water. It is available in many parts of the world that lack dependable surface runoff. Whereas surface supplies are affected by short term drought, groundwater is generally free of sediment colour, and pathogenic (disease) organism, although, polluted ground water conditions are considered irreversible. Ground water movement is controlled by the slope of the water table. Ground water is one source of water but it is not very common yet in the rural areas because of the cost of sinking. Rainwater Harvesting Techniques Edo State is not endowed so much with surface water. In rural area of Nigeria, water is traditionally, managed for two major purpose namely domestic consumption and agriculture. The techniques of water harvesting are micro-catchments and roof collection (Olokesusi, 2004). With reference to roof collection techniques, until the advent of western containers such as plastic sand metal African typically collected rain water from roof-tops with the aid of calabashes, and earthen ware pots. These objects are merely placed below the roof eaves and the water drops into them. Another traditional collection techniques, involved the construction of sliced bamboo gutters along the roof eaves, through which the water flows into calabashes and earthen pots. The water would then be taken into homes for domestic uses. Rural Water Treatment In many rural areas of in parts of Edo State water used in homes especially those for drinking area treated in various ways at the level they understand. Whenever surface water has been collected it is allowed to stand for some hours before it is decanted into earthen pots for storage. Some add alum in other to pull down sediments in the water to the bottom of the container after which they use some add ash and only a few boil cool before they use as drinking water. Results Table I: Water use and Sources in the Sample Communities Source of water Location Ugo Ebele Igueben Urhonigbe No % No % No % No % Rain water 10 25 14 35 6 15 8 20 Well 25 62.5 20 50 30 75 28 70 Stream 2 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bore holes 3 7.5 6 15 4 10 4 10 Public pump 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 40 100 40 100 40 100 40 100 Source: survey data, Feb. 2009. In the four rural areas studied, water stored in the well is commonly used for domestic purposes in Edo State, In order of usage Igueben recorded (75%), Urhonigbe (70%), Ugo (62.5), and Ebele (50%) respectively(see table 1). Only a few uses bore hole and also since state surface water is very scare no respondent mentioned stream as a water source in Ebele, Igueben and Urhonighe. Public pump were not mentioned at all. This is because in many places in Edo State surface water is lacking and is a manor problem for the people residing in these villages. Table II: Local methods of storing water by the respondents Water storage method No % Dugout wells 70 43.75 Clay earthen wares 50 37.5 Plastic tanks 20 12.5 Kegs/ 20 liters and 10 liters 10 6.25 Total 160 100% Source: Survey data Feb, 2009. Local methods used for storing water as gathered from the respondents are dugout well (43.75%), clay earthen wares (37.5%), plastic tanks (12.5%) and kegs of different sizes (6.25%). There is revelation that traditional was of storing and preserving water in the rural areas of Edo State is not being combined with the modern types. For instance one of the respondents interviewed mentioned that if many of the ruralites can afford plastic water tanks that they prefer it to earthen wares which break up easily. Table 3: Cost of Water for Domestic Uses on Daily Bases Cost No of Results Percentage N5 14 8.8 N10 41 25.6 N20 53 33.1 N30 32 20 N40 and above 20 12.5 Total 160 100% Source: Survey data Feb., 2009. It is evident from table 3 that most people spend an average of N20.00 daily to buy water. Thirty two people spend N30.00; forty one respondents agreed that they spend N10.00 daily to buy water. The implication of these expenses is that these rural inhabitants spent between N300.00 to N900.00 and these are predominately peasant farmers. Table 4: Causes of water shortage Causes of water shortage No of Respondents % Government neglect 97 61 Low rainfall 8 5 Absence of surface water 32 20 Few private scheme 23 14 Total 160 100% Source: Survey data Feb. 2009. Table 3 revealed that the government neglect is the major cause of water shortage accounting for 61 percent of responses followed by absence of surface water that accounted 20 percent. Few private borehole schemes accounted for 14.4 percent and low rainfall 5 percent. Quality of Water in the Rural Area of Edo State The rainwater quality in the four rural areas of Edo state showed satisfactory concentration in their physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics. This is because they fell with 2006 World Health Organization (WHO) safe limits for domestic water (see Onotu, 2006), thus it should be harvested, stored and use as alternative source of water for domestic uses since there is virtually the absent of hand-dug wells in these rural communities. The absent of hand dug wells in these rural areas could be attributed the topography of the area which is over 150 feet. The well is rain fed types, where gutter is connected round the roof and a ridge is connected from the gutter to the cemented wells. Nevertheless the rain water need slight purification methods (through traditional and scientific approaches) should be adopted in terms of its pH, Zn and Fe concentration. The detail method could be seen (Efe, 2006 and Origho, 2009). However the quality of the rain water stored in those wells d epreciates with times, the residents adopt the addition of Alum, this actually only allows the suspended substance or particles to settle down. According to Efe (2006) the water quality stored in rain fed wells depreciate by 2% on monthly basis, and gives room for the growth of pathogens. Similarly long storage the rain water makes the quality of the water from these wells vulnerable to bacterial. For instance high concentration of total coliform 1.2 -2.3MPN/100ml and faecal coliform (0.23-1.00) were found in over 40% of the rain fed water samples. And the water is characterized with high level of total dissolve substance (TDS) and total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity. The water quality was observed in open wells and those covered with leaf and thatches. Conclusion and Recommendation In conclusion in Edo State of Nigeria, the sources of water for domestic uses are inadequate. There is ever likelihood, that even the existing water from the dug-out wells which almost of the household have and water stored in plastic tanks which were from rainfall harvesting will be contaminated. Water born disease will be prevalent and the sanitary level will be very low. It is therefore recommended that the Edo State Government, through the state water Board should assist in the water supply development in the State to ease the suffering of the women and their children whose duty on a daily basis is to provide water in various homes in the various areas studied. They should equally make the water potable by adopting some purification methods in order to make for good health and healthy living in these rural environments. REFERENCES Aderibighe, S.A., Awoyemi, A.O. and Osagbemi, G.K. 2008. â€Å"Availability, Adequacy and Quality of Water Supply in Ilorin Metropolis†, Nigeria, European Journal of Scientific Research, Vol. 23. No 4. Anyadike, R.N. 1984. â€Å"Managing Nigeria’s Water Resources Through Pollution Control†, paper presented at the 27th Annual Conference of the N.G.A. University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Ayoade, J.O. and Oyebande, B.L., 1985. In a Geography of Nigerian Development ed, by Oeuntoyinbo et al published by Heinemann Educational Books (Nig), Ltd, Ibadan. Efe, S. I. (2006) Quality of Rainwater Harvesting for Rural Communities of Delta State, Nigeria. The Environmentalist, vol. 26, pp.175-181 Onotu, E, (2006) Quality of Surface Water in Edo State, Nigeria. Unpublished B.Sc Dissertation in the Dept. of Geography and Regional planning, Delta State University, Abraka, pp23-45 Origho, T. (2009) Assessment of Rainwater Harvesting in Ughelli delta State , Nigeria, Unpublished M.Sc Dissertation Dept. of Geography and Regional Planning, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria pp16-67

The Pass Fail System of Standardized Tests Essay examples -- Standardiz

The Pass Fail System of Standardized Tests Standardized tests have historically been used as measures of how students compare with each other or how much of a particular curriculum they have learned. Increasingly, standardized tests are being used to make major decisions about students, such as grade promotion or high school graduation, and schools. More and more often, they also are intended to shape the curriculum and instruction. Students across America have had to repeat classes because of the way standardized tests are used to pass or fail students. Students have had to rely on just one test to pass them for the whole semester (FairTest). Although the tests require students to retain information until the end of the semester, I believe it is wrong to allow just a single test to decide whether an entire semester’s work will be rewarded will the credit that may have been well earned. Even general standardized tests such as the SAT, which almost every high school student has taken, are not fair to students who may come from a poor educational background (Standardized Minds). Students are at a disadvantage if they have test taking anxiety, a condition that many students suffer from. If a student is having a bad day or going through a rough time on a test day, this may also determine their entire semester’s work. Standardized tests are often based on one topic, giving the student little room to express their strong points. Tests are called "high-stakes" when they used to make major decisions about a student, such as high school graduation or grade promotion. Tests are called "standardized" when all students answer the same questions under similar conditions and their responses are scored in the same way. Research has shown that high-stakes testing causes damage to individual students and education. It is not a reasonable method for improving schools. Test-taking anxiety is common among high school and college students. The anxiety can be quite stressful and sometimes weakening, both personally and academically. It is a condition that thousands of students suffer from and it is something that they cannot help or overcome by the time of a test. Students who suffer from this often get very panicked by exams, and most of the time they draw a blank during a test, even though they know the material... ...n a test score. High-stakes testing punishes students, and often teachers, for things they cannot control. It drives students and teachers away from learning, and at times from school (FairTest). Assessments of educational strengths and weaknesses can be useful at the individual, classroom, school or district levels. However, information the needs to be sufficiently timely, accurate, meaningful, detailed and comprehensive for the kind of diagnosis being made. Even outstanding students with high grade point averages are highly capable of failing a final exam due to anxieties and other conditions that almost every student experiences. Although standardized tests will still be given to students everywhere, the pass fail system must stop. There are alternatives that may be taken to give every student a fair chance while still keeping the effectiveness of the tests. One possibility could be to make the final exam a large part of the student’s grade but not a determinant of whether the student passes or fails. A student who understands and learned the material over the entire semester should not have to repeat a course just because of one bad test result.

A brief for an awareness campaign

For my project, I have chosen to create an awareness campaign, about child abuse, which can come under the marketing and advertising part of the course. My campaign is going to be mainly focused on sexual abuse, as it is quite a sensitive topic and not many people choose to do it. I am aware that it is going to be challenging, and that I would have to use some very effective techniques in order to give out the right message. The main aim is to educate people and inform them about what is going on in the world, as well as marketing for the charity organisation. These are very covert marketing techniques, as it is quite subtle and focused on the organisation's activities rather than the organisation itself. The project is going to be consisted of 4 posters that could be used in either magazine pages or on billboards. They will all have the same layout as well as the same idea, to make it as simple as possible for readers yet effective. Enigma will play a big role in my posters, as they will all be linked, as if it is like a series of pages and they all complete each other. By looking at advertisements by organisations such as NSPCC, I have realised that the use of dull and dark colours are very common, same as the close up shots. However, my use of innovative ideas will make the campaign more appealing, and the enigmatic factors will attract many readers. I will use the idea of including a child's picture in the poster, however unlike the others I will use as much bright colours as I possibly can, that will then be contrasted with the background. The main background is going to be an old diary opened, in quite gloomy and dark colours. The wordings â€Å"dear diary†¦ † are going to be used on the first three posters. The diary connotes that it is real life events, and just like how the book is opened, a person is opening their life for us to look at and go into it. Diaries are usually symbols of truth, as they are very secretive and owned by one person, so the fact that it is the main background connotes that the organisation is very honest about its activities, and that it is simply showing the viewers nothing but the reality. In the middle, there is going to be a very simple, yet colourful picture of a child, each one showing the situation developing, and then followed by short sentences beneath it, symbolising the child writing in their diaries. It shows a sequence of events as it starts by a picture of a girl happily sleeping in her bed, with the word â€Å"My first night in my new bed. he said I was a princess†. The enigma in the text makes the audience wonder who the â€Å"he† is and what the advert is about. The second poster shows a little boy at the park smiling and enjoying his time, however this time there is a hand holding onto his hands. It is then followed by the words â€Å"went to the park today, he played with me on the swings†. There we can immediately feel the enigmatic meaning of the next, where the audience feel the worry and almost know what it really wants to show, especially with the pun on the word â€Å"playing with me†. Even though it builds up tension, the readers would still want to get to the end and know what it is about. The third one is a picture of a little girl with two man hands on her shoulder, and again with the words â€Å"He said no one would understand†¦ he is my only best friend†. Now, it gets clearer to the readers, as the point would have been successfully showed. The last picture consists of the organisations name, followed by some facts, a helpline and then the slogan which is â€Å"This smile†¦ this child†¦ ead between the lines†. The slogan refers back to the smiles of the children in the pictures, and the appearance of a diary supports the idea of reading between the lines, in order to find the truth. The logo of the organisation is going to be placed on every single poster, adding to the confusion and enigmatic effect, but also helping the readers to understand. The advert is very disturbing to readers, as they are seeing innocent childhoods being taken away without realising, and how brainwashed the children get. The contrast in colours shows the active and bright life of children however surrounded by the gloomy colours connoting the dangers around them. The idea is targeted to a more educated, and clever audience, as it is based on challenging the readers to get to the point instead of giving it to them. This means that the advert is targeted at ABC1 audience from both genders, however since it is common for children to get abused in the lower class if society, then the advert is very important to appeal to them too. So overall it appeals to both ABC1 and C2DE audiences, with a very wide range, starting from young children to old grandparents both reporting the same problem. The billboards are going to be created using the same pictures, however with all of them stitched together, making it seem like a storyboard. It could be placed anywhere, however it would be best put at a place such as a shopping centre where viewers can stand and read all of the writing. Stickers are also going to be created with the logo of the campaign and distributed around. I am working in a pair with Kirstie Browne, and we have both decided to equally divide the work, and use a program called â€Å"Easy media creator 10 Suite† to help us create our posters, and make them seem professional. We will start by taking the pictures we need on digital cameras then use them for our final piece. The organisation that we will most probably choose is going to be â€Å"NSPCC† as it is mainly focused of the sexually abused children.

The Mental, Social And Physical Health Impacts On...

1.0 Introduction This paper will provide an overview on the mental, social and physical health impacts on Australians living in rural areas. There are many factors contributing towards the disadvantages of living in remote areas, there is inadequate access to services in rural areas such as education, health facilities, jobs, environmental and geographical factors, and social isolation (Francis, 2005). Adequate health services are seen as a basic human right yet those living in remote areas have very limited access to these services (Francis, 2005). The population of Australians living in remote areas are in worse health conditions than those living in major cities (Francis, 2005). Those living in remote areas are said to†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"56 per cent of rural households fall into the two lower income quintiles compared to 36 per cent of capital city households and 45 per cent of other urban households† (Faps, 2011). The cost of food in rural and remote areas is up to 10 per cent higher than those in metropolitan areas (Faps, 2011). â€Å"This gives a â€Å"double deprivation† effect, resulting from lower levels of income combined with higher basic costs† (Faps, 2011). Poor physical and mental health reflects the lower education levels and higher poverty levels in those living in rural areas (Faps, 2011). This shows that living in remote areas is a huge determinant of health. 3.0 Physical impacts of health on Australians living in isolation â€Å"Mortality and illness levels increases as the distance from metropolitan centres increase† (Francis, 2005). Those living in rural areas are subjected to higher levels of physical health impacts such as illness and disease (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2015). Some physical impacts that the rural population face is a higher death rate and shorter life span (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2015). The main factors that contribute to higher death rates are coronary heart disease, other circulatory diseases, motor vehicle accidents and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (Australian Institute of Health and